Seychelles
Seychelles The archipelago of Seychelles, situated in the Indian Ocean, consists of a little bit more than a hundred unique islands and stretches for many kilometres along the south-eastern coast of Africa. Its location promoted that the African, the European, the Chinese and the Indian cultures interlaced curiously and tightly in its territory. The holidays spent in Seychelles have purely “beach” orientation without different extra “bonuses”. It is a great pleasure and a fantastic rest in a real coconut paradise. Fans of yachting, sea fishing, and diving and exclusive simple beach relaxation assemble here. The holidays on the islands are quite expensive and only prosperous tourists can afford Seychelles tours. The most part of the Seychelles territory is a national park protected by the government. One can meet here rare animals and plants, unique for this area.
All the sights here are natural; there are no artificial ones as such. But there is a primordial tropical nature, the purest water, marble stones of different colours and the unique underwater world. There is no hotel star classification, and Slavrica tour operator assesses the rating of the hotels itself, giving them conventional “stars”. Most of the hotels are low-rise buildings or bungalows, situated on the first line of the seashore. The bungalows on the real inhabited islands are highly appreciated by newly married couples. Millions of tourists come to Seychelles from different continents to admire the beauty and enjoy the unique tropical climate. There is no harassing continental heat here, so Seychelles tours are in good constant demand till October. The magnificent holidays may be diversified: you can set off for a real piratical voyage in search of treasures, visit coconut farms, stroll about the jungle. The fans of fishing have a unique opportunity not only to catch an enormous fish but to register their record with the help of the equipment set on special boats sailing nearby. Seychelles tours are not cheap. But they are more than compensated by the great impressions of the beautiful nature and positive emotions from meeting cordial natives, so the hospitable islands stick in one's memory for a long time.
Can you have a rest?
Can you have a rest? Most of you definitely will say: «Of course!», someone would think about the question, but some of us will frankly confess to themselves that they absolutely can't do it. Unfortunately, this is the problem of all the people over the world because the common rhythm of our life is so fast that there is no possibility even to think about the full value rest.
And what is needed for such a rest? First of all, psychologies always recommend to change the environment. When we are inside all the same four walls, it's difficult to enjoy quiet and silence. And exactly the tourism could be one of such ways of total changing of your environment and at the same time it could be the most interesting travel.
Certainly, you can object that the tourism isn't the cheapest way for the rest. But it is worth of that. You didn't work so hard all the year in vain, getting up to your neck in work, to give yourself some weeks of quiet rest. So why do you need to cut down your expenses on yourself and on the health of nervous system?
Foreign vocation is not only wonderful opportunity to have a good rest to forget at least for the short time about the problems. This is a unique possibility to plunge into definitely other world, to admire the architecture, scenery, to get to know the traditions and ceremonies, to taste the dishes of national cuisine, to learn foreign language, and so on and so forth, all that you could only imagine.
Everyone understands personally, what tourism is. For some people that is an opportunity to pack a suitcase and to leave for unusual fabulously exotic country to rest, for someone – to bag a knapsack and to go to the forest, small river and nature. Many a man expect from travel opportunities to relax, to luxuriate in the sunshine, to swim in the sea, and for someone it is necessary to visit as much as possible excursions and museums, to learn history and country or city sights. But in any case, that’s always very good and unusually to bag yourself, to take necessary things and to forget about an ordinary life for some time. Tourism – is an unusual and very interesting phenomenon when we can recollect beautiful countries, unusual traditions and the ceremonies of different people, because essential problems at work, house, study are forgotten during the travel. The tourist and the traveller easy-going gait and smile on the face with the desire to spend pleasant time that is what distinguishes them from other people. Knowingly, a tourist trip is the best type of the rest for the majority of people, in fact it is cool to gather with friends, family, lover and to buy train, plane or bus tickets, to have a rest or good time all together. Annually, millions of people ask travel agencies to find for them a suitable tour and organize a trip. Thus everyone has his own requirements and wishes. But, as practice shows, the main factors which influence on the choices are the price and the comfort in the hotel. There are lots of offers for tourists, from « hot tours » to travels with improved comfort. The advantage of hot permits is that tourists have a possibility to rest under the prices which will be below market ones. But other offers give some more advantages, for example, to choose independently the date of a trip, the quantity of tour days, hotel, rooms and other. No matter what tour you choose – the vacation in Kemer, or the tours in Bodrum, you can always buy an excursion permit to visit other cities in Turkey. The trips to all major country sights are organized even in the smallest towns and villages. But we must not forget that there are always situated lots of exciting things in the large cities. Consequently, many operators suggest to take for the beginning a sightseeing city tour and then, after having looked about, to get country round.
Certainly, you can object that the tourism isn't the cheapest way for the rest. But it is worth of that. You didn't work so hard all the year in vain, getting up to your neck in work, to give yourself some weeks of quiet rest. So why do you need to cut down your expenses on yourself and on the health of nervous system?
Foreign vocation is not only wonderful opportunity to have a good rest to forget at least for the short time about the problems. This is a unique possibility to plunge into definitely other world, to admire the architecture, scenery, to get to know the traditions and ceremonies, to taste the dishes of national cuisine, to learn foreign language, and so on and so forth, all that you could only imagine.
Everyone understands personally, what tourism is. For some people that is an opportunity to pack a suitcase and to leave for unusual fabulously exotic country to rest, for someone – to bag a knapsack and to go to the forest, small river and nature. Many a man expect from travel opportunities to relax, to luxuriate in the sunshine, to swim in the sea, and for someone it is necessary to visit as much as possible excursions and museums, to learn history and country or city sights. But in any case, that’s always very good and unusually to bag yourself, to take necessary things and to forget about an ordinary life for some time. Tourism – is an unusual and very interesting phenomenon when we can recollect beautiful countries, unusual traditions and the ceremonies of different people, because essential problems at work, house, study are forgotten during the travel. The tourist and the traveller easy-going gait and smile on the face with the desire to spend pleasant time that is what distinguishes them from other people. Knowingly, a tourist trip is the best type of the rest for the majority of people, in fact it is cool to gather with friends, family, lover and to buy train, plane or bus tickets, to have a rest or good time all together. Annually, millions of people ask travel agencies to find for them a suitable tour and organize a trip. Thus everyone has his own requirements and wishes. But, as practice shows, the main factors which influence on the choices are the price and the comfort in the hotel. There are lots of offers for tourists, from « hot tours » to travels with improved comfort. The advantage of hot permits is that tourists have a possibility to rest under the prices which will be below market ones. But other offers give some more advantages, for example, to choose independently the date of a trip, the quantity of tour days, hotel, rooms and other. No matter what tour you choose – the vacation in Kemer, or the tours in Bodrum, you can always buy an excursion permit to visit other cities in Turkey. The trips to all major country sights are organized even in the smallest towns and villages. But we must not forget that there are always situated lots of exciting things in the large cities. Consequently, many operators suggest to take for the beginning a sightseeing city tour and then, after having looked about, to get country round.
THE COURTS
The courts enforce statutes and interpret them. They also invalidate unconstitutional statutes, and make law in areas not covered by statutes. Here are some examples of the four main roles played by our courts:
Enforcement The Copyright Act gives a copyright owner the exclusive right to reproduce the owner's work. A copyright infringement suit is an example of court enforcement of a statute. (Copyright infringement is discussed in "Infringement," in the Copyright Law Summary )
Interpretation .According to the Copyright Act, the copyright in a work created by an employee within the scope of his or her employment is owned by the employer. The Copyright Act does not define the term "employee." The Supreme Court case that defines the term is an example of court interpretation of a statute. (That case is discussed in the "The Work Made for Hire Rule" in the Ownership of Copyrights Summary )
Invalidation . The courts invalidate unconstitutional laws. Unconstitutional laws are laws that conflict with provisions of the Constitution. The Constitution is the supreme law of the United States. Many "constitutionality" cases involve claims that a law violates the Constitution's Bill of Rights (the first ten amendments). In Roe v. Wade , the Supreme Court invalidated a state statute restricting women's access to abortion. According to the Court, the statute violated a pregnant woman's constitutional right of privacy.
Making Law . The courts create the law for "common law" subject areas. Common law covers areas not covered by statutes. In many states, for example, individuals' rights of privacy and publicity are protected under common law rather than under statutory laws.
Types of Courts
There are several types of courts. The federal and state court systems consist of two levels of courts: Trial courts and appellate courts. Cases are tried in trial courts. Appellate courts review the decisions of the trial courts. (Appellate and trial courts are discussed in "Civil Lawsuits," later in this summary.)
The federal court system is divided into 13 judicial circuits. Eleven of the circuits are numbered. Each of the numbered circuits contains more than one state. The Ninth Circuit, for example, covers California, Oregon, Washington, Idaho, Nevada, Arizona, Alaska, and Hawaii. The 12th and 13th circuits are the District of Columbia Circuit and the Federal Circuit. The Federal Circuit handles appeals in patent cases and Claims Court cases.
Each federal circuit has one appellate court. These courts are known as Courts of Appeals or Circuit Courts. The Supreme Court reviews the decisions of the Courts of Appeals.
Each federal circuit is divided into judicial districts. A district can be as small as one city or as large as an entire state. The trial courts are known as the United States District Courts.
Jurisdiction
The federal courts have jurisdiction over cases involving federal statutes (the Copyright Act, for example) and other "federal questions." They also have jurisdiction over cases in which the party filing the suit and the party being sued reside in different states. This type of federal jurisdiction is known as "diversity" jurisdiction.
Civil and Criminal Cases
A criminal case is brought by the federal government or a state to prosecute a defendant (the party sued) for violations of the government's criminal laws. Murder and burglary are examples of violations of criminal laws. If the defendant in a criminal case is found guilty by the jury, he or she is sentenced by the court to serve a jail sentence or pay a fine as punishment for the crime.
A civil case is a case brought by one party (the "plaintiff") against another party (the "defendant") to resolve a legal dispute involving rights based on statutory law or common law. A copyright infringement case is an example of a civil case involving statutory law. A suit seeking damages for a writer's breach of a contract (in which the writer promised to create a script for a movie but failed to do so) is an example of a civil case involving common law rights. (Breach of contract is discussed in "What Is a Contract?," the Contracts Law Summary )
While certain violations of the Copyright Act and the Lanham Act (the federal trademark statute) are criminal violations, multimedia developers and publishers will be concerned primarily with civil cases.
Enforcement The Copyright Act gives a copyright owner the exclusive right to reproduce the owner's work. A copyright infringement suit is an example of court enforcement of a statute. (Copyright infringement is discussed in "Infringement," in the Copyright Law Summary )
Interpretation .According to the Copyright Act, the copyright in a work created by an employee within the scope of his or her employment is owned by the employer. The Copyright Act does not define the term "employee." The Supreme Court case that defines the term is an example of court interpretation of a statute. (That case is discussed in the "The Work Made for Hire Rule" in the Ownership of Copyrights Summary )
Invalidation . The courts invalidate unconstitutional laws. Unconstitutional laws are laws that conflict with provisions of the Constitution. The Constitution is the supreme law of the United States. Many "constitutionality" cases involve claims that a law violates the Constitution's Bill of Rights (the first ten amendments). In Roe v. Wade , the Supreme Court invalidated a state statute restricting women's access to abortion. According to the Court, the statute violated a pregnant woman's constitutional right of privacy.
Making Law . The courts create the law for "common law" subject areas. Common law covers areas not covered by statutes. In many states, for example, individuals' rights of privacy and publicity are protected under common law rather than under statutory laws.
There are several types of courts. The federal and state court systems consist of two levels of courts: Trial courts and appellate courts. Cases are tried in trial courts. Appellate courts review the decisions of the trial courts. (Appellate and trial courts are discussed in "Civil Lawsuits," later in this summary.)
The federal court system is divided into 13 judicial circuits. Eleven of the circuits are numbered. Each of the numbered circuits contains more than one state. The Ninth Circuit, for example, covers California, Oregon, Washington, Idaho, Nevada, Arizona, Alaska, and Hawaii. The 12th and 13th circuits are the District of Columbia Circuit and the Federal Circuit. The Federal Circuit handles appeals in patent cases and Claims Court cases.
Each federal circuit has one appellate court. These courts are known as Courts of Appeals or Circuit Courts. The Supreme Court reviews the decisions of the Courts of Appeals.
Each federal circuit is divided into judicial districts. A district can be as small as one city or as large as an entire state. The trial courts are known as the United States District Courts.
Jurisdiction
The federal courts have jurisdiction over cases involving federal statutes (the Copyright Act, for example) and other "federal questions." They also have jurisdiction over cases in which the party filing the suit and the party being sued reside in different states. This type of federal jurisdiction is known as "diversity" jurisdiction.
A criminal case is brought by the federal government or a state to prosecute a defendant (the party sued) for violations of the government's criminal laws. Murder and burglary are examples of violations of criminal laws. If the defendant in a criminal case is found guilty by the jury, he or she is sentenced by the court to serve a jail sentence or pay a fine as punishment for the crime.
A civil case is a case brought by one party (the "plaintiff") against another party (the "defendant") to resolve a legal dispute involving rights based on statutory law or common law. A copyright infringement case is an example of a civil case involving statutory law. A suit seeking damages for a writer's breach of a contract (in which the writer promised to create a script for a movie but failed to do so) is an example of a civil case involving common law rights. (Breach of contract is discussed in "What Is a Contract?," the Contracts Law Summary )
While certain violations of the Copyright Act and the Lanham Act (the federal trademark statute) are criminal violations, multimedia developers and publishers will be concerned primarily with civil cases.
The U.S. Legal System
In the United States, laws are made at the federal and state levels. Laws adopted by legislative bodies - Congress and state legislatures - are called "statutes."
The federal and state courts enforce statutes. They also create law.
These materials describe some of the basic concepts of our legal system, and the roles played by legislatures and courts.
FEDERAL STATUTES
The U.S. Constitution gives Congress to power to enact federal laws ("statutes") on certain subjects.
The Copyright Act (discussed extensively in the Copyright Law Summary ) is one example of a statute adopted by Congress. Congress's power to enact the Copyright Act stems from Article I, Section 8, of the Constitution, which authorizes Congress to establish laws giving "authors and inventors the exclusive right to their respective writings and discoveries" to encourage progress in the arts and sciences.
According to the Constitution, all powers not delegated to Congress are reserved to the states. The "commerce clause" of the Constitution (which concerns interstate commerce) is generally viewed as giving Congress broad power to regulate matters affecting interstate commerce - trademarks used in interstate commerce, for example.
Federal law-making begins when a member of the Senate or the House of Representatives introduces a bill. Most bills are referred to standing committees (for example, the House Committee on the Judiciary) and to subcommittees for study. Bills are later brought before the Senate or House for debate and vote. Differences between the Senate and House versions of a bill are resolved in joint conference committees.
After the House and Senate have approved a uniform version of the bill, the bill is sent to the President. If the President signs the bill, it becomes law. If the President vetoes the bill, it becomes law only if the Senate and House override the veto. This requires the consent of two-thirds of the members of the Senate and House.
The federal and state courts enforce statutes. They also create law.
These materials describe some of the basic concepts of our legal system, and the roles played by legislatures and courts.
The U.S. Constitution gives Congress to power to enact federal laws ("statutes") on certain subjects.
The Copyright Act (discussed extensively in the Copyright Law Summary ) is one example of a statute adopted by Congress. Congress's power to enact the Copyright Act stems from Article I, Section 8, of the Constitution, which authorizes Congress to establish laws giving "authors and inventors the exclusive right to their respective writings and discoveries" to encourage progress in the arts and sciences.
According to the Constitution, all powers not delegated to Congress are reserved to the states. The "commerce clause" of the Constitution (which concerns interstate commerce) is generally viewed as giving Congress broad power to regulate matters affecting interstate commerce - trademarks used in interstate commerce, for example.
Federal law-making begins when a member of the Senate or the House of Representatives introduces a bill. Most bills are referred to standing committees (for example, the House Committee on the Judiciary) and to subcommittees for study. Bills are later brought before the Senate or House for debate and vote. Differences between the Senate and House versions of a bill are resolved in joint conference committees.
Lawsuit
A lawsuit or (less commonly) "suit in law" is a civil action brought in a court of law in which a plaintiff, a party who claims to have incurred loss as a result of a defendant's actions, demands a legal or equitable remedy. The defendant is required to respond to the plaintiff's complaint. If the plaintiff is successful, judgment will be given in the plaintiff's favor, and a variety of court orders may be issued to enforce a right, award damages, or impose a temporary or permanent injunction to prevent an act or compel an act. A declaratory judgment may be issued to prevent future legal disputes. Although not as common, lawsuit may also refer to a criminal action, criminal proceeding, or criminal claim.
A lawsuit may involve dispute resolution of private law issues between individuals, business entities or non-profit organizations. A lawsuit may also enable the state to be treated as if it were a private party in a civil case, as plaintiff or defendant regarding an injury, or may provide the state with a civil cause of action to enforce certain laws.
The conduct of a lawsuit is called litigation. One who has a tendency to litigate rather than seek non-judicial remedies is called litigious. The plaintiffs and defendants are called litigants and the attorneys representing them are called litigators.
Rules of criminal or civil procedure govern the conduct of a lawsuit in the common law adversarial system of dispute resolution. Procedural rules are additionally constrained/informed by separate statutory laws, case law, and constitutional provisions that define the rights of the parties to a lawsuit (see especially due process), though the rules will generally reflect this legal context on their face. The details of procedure differ greatly from jurisdiction to jurisdiction, and often from court to court within the same jurisdiction. The rules are very important for litigants to know, however, because they dictate the timing and progression of the lawsuit—what may be filed and when, to obtain what result. Failure to comply with the procedural rules may result in serious limitations upon the ability to present claims or defenses at any subsequent trial, or even dismissal of the lawsuit.
Though the majority of lawsuits are settled and never reach trial, they can be very complicated to litigate. This is particularly true in federal systems, where a federal court may be applying state law (e.g., the Erie doctrine in the United States) or vice versa, or one state applying the law of another, and where it additionally may not be clear which level (or location) of court actually has jurisdiction over the claim or personal jurisdiction over the defendant. For example, about 98 percent of civil cases in the United States federal courts are resolved without a trial. Domestic courts are also often called upon to apply foreign law, or to act upon foreign defendants, over whom they may not, as a practical matter, even have the ability to enforce a judgment if the defendant's assets are outside their reach.
Lawsuits become additionally complicated as more parties become involved (see joinder). Within a "single" lawsuit, there can be any number of claims and defenses (all based on numerous laws) between any number of plaintiffs or defendants, each of whom can bring any number of cross-claims and counterclaims against each other, and even bring additional parties into the suit on either side after it progresses. However, courts typically have some power to sever claims and parties into separate actions if it is more efficient to do so, such as if there is not a sufficient overlap of factual issues between the various claims.
A lawsuit may involve dispute resolution of private law issues between individuals, business entities or non-profit organizations. A lawsuit may also enable the state to be treated as if it were a private party in a civil case, as plaintiff or defendant regarding an injury, or may provide the state with a civil cause of action to enforce certain laws.
The conduct of a lawsuit is called litigation. One who has a tendency to litigate rather than seek non-judicial remedies is called litigious. The plaintiffs and defendants are called litigants and the attorneys representing them are called litigators.
Though the majority of lawsuits are settled and never reach trial, they can be very complicated to litigate. This is particularly true in federal systems, where a federal court may be applying state law (e.g., the Erie doctrine in the United States) or vice versa, or one state applying the law of another, and where it additionally may not be clear which level (or location) of court actually has jurisdiction over the claim or personal jurisdiction over the defendant. For example, about 98 percent of civil cases in the United States federal courts are resolved without a trial. Domestic courts are also often called upon to apply foreign law, or to act upon foreign defendants, over whom they may not, as a practical matter, even have the ability to enforce a judgment if the defendant's assets are outside their reach.
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